Currently, pilots are supported by sophisticated technology in the cockpit. There are automation options as well as standardized procedures. However, despite the sophistication of todays technology, aircraft safety can still be jeopardized (Breda, Veltman Bronkhorst, 1997).
Most aircraft accidents are claimed to be caused by human error (Kumar Malik, 2003). This simple statement is enough to rouse various questions beginning in why, which question the human capacity to be able to control aircrafts. It is stated that around 70 of aircraft accidents are caused by the pilots miscalculations within and outside the cockpit (BASI, 1996).
Researchers Work Setting and Role
The researcher will be closely working with the National Transport and Safety Board (NTSB) in order to identify the data needed for this research. Also, since the researcher is conducting a study using the NTSBs provided information, the researcher has a role to use such data properly. It is also the role of the researcher to ensure that all data will be handled appropriately and will not be mis-analyzed in order to come up with a research that is reliable.
Statement of the Problem
Despite the availability of advanced technology, 70 of aircraft accidents are caused by human error (Wiegmann Shappell, 2003). Given this background information regarding aviation accidents, this research will address the role and impact of the human factor in the aircraft cockpit when it comes to aviation safety. In this study, the human factor constitutes the aircraft pilot who is manning the cockpit. The research will also address the underlying reasons why pilot errors occur, as well as determine what may be done to prevent the aircraft accidents.
Since aviation safety is a broad topic, the researcher has established several research questions to help limit the scope of the topic. The following questions will be the main focus of this research in order to explain adequately the issues regarding aviation safety and the human factor
How do aircraft accidents occur
How does the human factor affect aviation safety
What is the role that human factors play in aircraft accidents
What are the reasons enumerated by pilots in relation to aircraft accidents
Based on the training of the pilot, should reasons given for aircraft accidents be considered valid or acceptable
How can the human factor prevent aviation accidents from happening
Significance of the Problem
This research is of significance because it may help determine the reasons why aircraft accidents occur due to the human factor. It is necessary to determine these reasons in order to arrive at a clear understanding of how aircraft accidents related to human factors may be prevented. It is necessary to avoid aircraft accidents because, not only will this lessen the probability of increased costs, it will also lessen the probability of peoples lives being endangered. People want to be assured that they are traveling on air with a trusted pilot who has proper training.
This research will provide information on how airline companies may be able to help their pilots prevent human errors and ensure that they are flying safely. Aircraft safety is a vital issue as it involves a lot of costs, and this is why it is necessary to conduct this research.
This study will attempt to establish the importance of sufficient pilot training and preparation for cases of emergency. This research will also provide airline companies with information regarding the causes of pilot errors if they know the possible causes, they will be able to prevent them from occurring.
Limitations
This research will focus merely on the human factor when it comes to the prevention of aircraft accidents. While there may be other factors that may cause accidents, this will not be included in the research. Also, the research will analyze only the information that the National Transport and Safety Board (NTSB) will provide.
Assumptions
The researcher assumes that since it is stated that most aircraft accidents occur due to human error, it would be necessary to evaluate the responsible persons training in order to prevent such accidents. It is assumed that accidents can be prevented, and that understanding several factors can help in the prevention of accidents, specifically the human factor.
Definitions of Terms
Aircraft heavier-than-air flying machines, which may either be powered or un-powered, which have wings that are fixed relative to the rest of the structure (Cutler Liber, 2005, p. 29)
Aviation a form of transport using aircraft which is one of the worlds most influential industries (Upham, 2003, p. 3).
Aviation Safety safety procedures and principles implemented in the field of aviation in order to ensure that no lives are harmed (Howell Hemel, 2007).
Cockpit the space from which the pilot and his crew members are manning the aircraft this area consists of the controls of the aircraft (Roskam, 2002).
Human factor In this research, the human factor will be defined as the aircraft pilot and how he or she is able to address issues and situations in order to ensure safety
The Discipline of Human Factors
The discipline of human factors has come up only recently, thought its roots go back far in the history, intertwined with other fields such as education, production, design and engineering. The term human factors, otherwise referred to as ergonomics, is the field of study that is defined by Murch (1994) as the establishment of a link between the human worker and the machine or equipment being operated to achieve a healthy fit between the two. The early application of human factors was in the designs of aircrafts that were used during the World War II (Murch, 1994). The need for integrating human factors in aircraft design is initiated by the increasing number of crashes that demanded for changes for purposes of safety (Murch, 1994). Although the involvement of human factors in aviation can be traced back to the earlier days of aviation, early flights were done at selected places under visual conditions to make them as safe as possible. Even then, there were serious problems that were related to human factors and these flights often crashed causing fatalities due to human errors (Wise, Garland, Hopkin, 2009).
History of Human Factors in Aviation
The effort made to realize the idea that humans can fly one day captured the thoughts of man for many centuries. It was not until 1903, when the Wright brothers made the first successful human flight (Rockman, 2004). All efforts for flight before this one ended up in failure either because there was not enough understanding of aerodynamics but also because the flight lacked the technology necessary to achieve the aerodynamic balance (Moon, 2007). However, after the achievement of flight, the inventions of relevant technologies made it possible and signaled the start of an evolution that would lead to the invention of supersonic travel and even to space. Resources are still continuously allocated for the development of new aircraft design and to integrate new technology in order to make them faster, carry more weight while being economical. It is indeed impressive to see the achievement of sciences that have been done in just a few years.
However, it would be inaccurate to purely describe the achievements of aerospace as a feat of only engineering. It is important to realize that all vehicles are controlled by people who, in coordination with ground support staff, play a major role in making the operations of vehicle safe and effective. Hence, the understanding of the role that humans played in the operations of aircraft is also an essential part of the achievements in aerospace industry. In the last century, tremendous advances have been made in the disciplines that are concerned with suiting a person to the job and the job to the person. Flight crews as well as other staff that is involved in the complicated operations in the aviation industry are now selected with care and train professionally. It is also taken care that the equipment they use matches their capabilities and limitations and it is ensured that they are protected from the hazards of the environment in which they are protected. The use of human sciences in these processes has increased tremendously.
Engineering only tells part of the story. People and the work they do fit prominently in the wider scene and this is the first thing that is made clear in the study of aviation disasters. In fact, two out of three cases show that human error played a major role (Edwards, 1988). In most cases, they are the result of tear in skilled performance, as in those instances system designers as well as management failed to pay sufficient attention to integration of human characteristics and skills in the installed devices (Edwards, 1988). The discipline of human factors (HF) makes an attempt to address this issue in a systematic way, in order to achieve both the well being of all personnel involved, regardless of their position and to achieve the maximum effectiveness of the operation (Wiener, Nagel, Smolensky, Stein, 1998).
Human Errors in Aviation
Edkins and Pfister (2003), in providing a general definition for human error, mentioned that errors arise from human limitations because of the constraints placed on memory and processing of information. Apart from this, fatigue and stress are also factors that affect human limitations, which consequently have an impact on human error (Edkins Pfister, 2003). In addition, Wiener and Nagel (1988) argued that human error can also be caused by momentary lapses in skills, which is related to the inability of managers and system designers to focus on the human components of design. Kirwan (1994) examined an aviation accident, The Crash of the BEA Trident 1, and the corresponding reasons why it happened. The author narrated the events surrounding the accidents and pinpointed underlying causes. More specifically, the author mentioned the condition of the pilot, training of the crew, and mechanical failures as the primary reasons for the accident (Kirwan 1994).
Aviation disasters, in general, results from a variety of reasons, such as terrorism, pilot andor air traffic control error, weather, mechanical failure or a combination of these factors (Waugh, 2000). Antosia and Cahill recognized the possibility that aviation accidents may come from terrorism but a greater degree of possibility is attached to human error, weather, or mechanical failure. Haine (2000) further divided the aspect of human error into three specific categories. According to the author, the air accidents attributed to human failure are caused by lack of knowledge or skill, 25 percent improper attitude, 70 percent, and state of mind or body, 5 percent (Haine, 2000, p. 21). Similarly, Costa (2010) divided human factors contributing to airline accidents into three categories, which are sleep loss, desynchronosis, and chronic fatigue.
This GCP project seeks to establish the extent to which the human factor element affects air safety. In designing the methodology therefore, it is important that the participants chosen be those people and organizations that are familiar with aircraft safety.
Research design
There will be no primary data collection activities such as interviews and questionnaires, involved in the research. The research will be a secondary one with a focus on data available on the subject. This is justified by the fact that there is a lot of data available on the subject matter the challenge will be to find the appropriate statistics, and align the data analyses with the research objectives. The research design will be a non-experimental type.
Population
The research will draw its data from available research from National Transport and Safety Board (NTSB). The idea of getting data from reputable airline companies websites is also being explored. However, the use of the second type of data will only be possible if consistent data from at least 4 airlines can be found. Worth noting, is that the NTSB data is sufficient and any extra sources will provide the diversity needed to increase the depth of the research.
Procedure
NTSB, our main source of data, is a statutory body in charge of safety on transportation issues. Most of its reports are publicly available for use by any member of the public. The board does not require anyone to seek special permission to use its reports if the intended use falls within the realms of non profit making. Given that the research is not intended to generate any profits, the only compliance procedure needed in using the NTSB data will be giving full acknowledgement for the use of the reports.
Sample size and distribution
The criteria for selecting the reports will be as follows
The research will use 20 NTSB reports.
The year the report was made. The research will focus on reports that have been made within the last ten years. This is informed by the need to keep the sampling within controllable limits. Reports made in the last ten years are likely to be more easily accessible.
The investigative reports chosen will be those reports whose conclusions blame human error for the crash.
Plane model, airline involved, investigators and any other factors not related to, or mentioned in the research will not be considered in the sample selection.
Data analysis
Data analysis will be done using available quantitative data analytical methods as may be appropriate. The use of Statistical Package for the Social Sciences andor Microsoft Excel will be chosen so as to complement the descriptive presentation of findings as well test the validity and consistency of the results.
Limitations
The most glaring limitation of the research is the inability to conduct primary research. The potential participants for such a population would be pilots, co-pilots, air traffic controllers and aircraft safety experts. Accessing a representative population for these participants would be a challenge and take a lot of time and resources. For that reason, the research is unable to carry out a credible primary research approach.
Most aircraft accidents are claimed to be caused by human error (Kumar Malik, 2003). This simple statement is enough to rouse various questions beginning in why, which question the human capacity to be able to control aircrafts. It is stated that around 70 of aircraft accidents are caused by the pilots miscalculations within and outside the cockpit (BASI, 1996).
Researchers Work Setting and Role
The researcher will be closely working with the National Transport and Safety Board (NTSB) in order to identify the data needed for this research. Also, since the researcher is conducting a study using the NTSBs provided information, the researcher has a role to use such data properly. It is also the role of the researcher to ensure that all data will be handled appropriately and will not be mis-analyzed in order to come up with a research that is reliable.
Statement of the Problem
Despite the availability of advanced technology, 70 of aircraft accidents are caused by human error (Wiegmann Shappell, 2003). Given this background information regarding aviation accidents, this research will address the role and impact of the human factor in the aircraft cockpit when it comes to aviation safety. In this study, the human factor constitutes the aircraft pilot who is manning the cockpit. The research will also address the underlying reasons why pilot errors occur, as well as determine what may be done to prevent the aircraft accidents.
Since aviation safety is a broad topic, the researcher has established several research questions to help limit the scope of the topic. The following questions will be the main focus of this research in order to explain adequately the issues regarding aviation safety and the human factor
How do aircraft accidents occur
How does the human factor affect aviation safety
What is the role that human factors play in aircraft accidents
What are the reasons enumerated by pilots in relation to aircraft accidents
Based on the training of the pilot, should reasons given for aircraft accidents be considered valid or acceptable
How can the human factor prevent aviation accidents from happening
Significance of the Problem
This research is of significance because it may help determine the reasons why aircraft accidents occur due to the human factor. It is necessary to determine these reasons in order to arrive at a clear understanding of how aircraft accidents related to human factors may be prevented. It is necessary to avoid aircraft accidents because, not only will this lessen the probability of increased costs, it will also lessen the probability of peoples lives being endangered. People want to be assured that they are traveling on air with a trusted pilot who has proper training.
This research will provide information on how airline companies may be able to help their pilots prevent human errors and ensure that they are flying safely. Aircraft safety is a vital issue as it involves a lot of costs, and this is why it is necessary to conduct this research.
This study will attempt to establish the importance of sufficient pilot training and preparation for cases of emergency. This research will also provide airline companies with information regarding the causes of pilot errors if they know the possible causes, they will be able to prevent them from occurring.
Limitations
This research will focus merely on the human factor when it comes to the prevention of aircraft accidents. While there may be other factors that may cause accidents, this will not be included in the research. Also, the research will analyze only the information that the National Transport and Safety Board (NTSB) will provide.
Assumptions
The researcher assumes that since it is stated that most aircraft accidents occur due to human error, it would be necessary to evaluate the responsible persons training in order to prevent such accidents. It is assumed that accidents can be prevented, and that understanding several factors can help in the prevention of accidents, specifically the human factor.
Definitions of Terms
Aircraft heavier-than-air flying machines, which may either be powered or un-powered, which have wings that are fixed relative to the rest of the structure (Cutler Liber, 2005, p. 29)
Aviation a form of transport using aircraft which is one of the worlds most influential industries (Upham, 2003, p. 3).
Aviation Safety safety procedures and principles implemented in the field of aviation in order to ensure that no lives are harmed (Howell Hemel, 2007).
Cockpit the space from which the pilot and his crew members are manning the aircraft this area consists of the controls of the aircraft (Roskam, 2002).
Human factor In this research, the human factor will be defined as the aircraft pilot and how he or she is able to address issues and situations in order to ensure safety
The Discipline of Human Factors
The discipline of human factors has come up only recently, thought its roots go back far in the history, intertwined with other fields such as education, production, design and engineering. The term human factors, otherwise referred to as ergonomics, is the field of study that is defined by Murch (1994) as the establishment of a link between the human worker and the machine or equipment being operated to achieve a healthy fit between the two. The early application of human factors was in the designs of aircrafts that were used during the World War II (Murch, 1994). The need for integrating human factors in aircraft design is initiated by the increasing number of crashes that demanded for changes for purposes of safety (Murch, 1994). Although the involvement of human factors in aviation can be traced back to the earlier days of aviation, early flights were done at selected places under visual conditions to make them as safe as possible. Even then, there were serious problems that were related to human factors and these flights often crashed causing fatalities due to human errors (Wise, Garland, Hopkin, 2009).
History of Human Factors in Aviation
The effort made to realize the idea that humans can fly one day captured the thoughts of man for many centuries. It was not until 1903, when the Wright brothers made the first successful human flight (Rockman, 2004). All efforts for flight before this one ended up in failure either because there was not enough understanding of aerodynamics but also because the flight lacked the technology necessary to achieve the aerodynamic balance (Moon, 2007). However, after the achievement of flight, the inventions of relevant technologies made it possible and signaled the start of an evolution that would lead to the invention of supersonic travel and even to space. Resources are still continuously allocated for the development of new aircraft design and to integrate new technology in order to make them faster, carry more weight while being economical. It is indeed impressive to see the achievement of sciences that have been done in just a few years.
However, it would be inaccurate to purely describe the achievements of aerospace as a feat of only engineering. It is important to realize that all vehicles are controlled by people who, in coordination with ground support staff, play a major role in making the operations of vehicle safe and effective. Hence, the understanding of the role that humans played in the operations of aircraft is also an essential part of the achievements in aerospace industry. In the last century, tremendous advances have been made in the disciplines that are concerned with suiting a person to the job and the job to the person. Flight crews as well as other staff that is involved in the complicated operations in the aviation industry are now selected with care and train professionally. It is also taken care that the equipment they use matches their capabilities and limitations and it is ensured that they are protected from the hazards of the environment in which they are protected. The use of human sciences in these processes has increased tremendously.
Engineering only tells part of the story. People and the work they do fit prominently in the wider scene and this is the first thing that is made clear in the study of aviation disasters. In fact, two out of three cases show that human error played a major role (Edwards, 1988). In most cases, they are the result of tear in skilled performance, as in those instances system designers as well as management failed to pay sufficient attention to integration of human characteristics and skills in the installed devices (Edwards, 1988). The discipline of human factors (HF) makes an attempt to address this issue in a systematic way, in order to achieve both the well being of all personnel involved, regardless of their position and to achieve the maximum effectiveness of the operation (Wiener, Nagel, Smolensky, Stein, 1998).
Human Errors in Aviation
Edkins and Pfister (2003), in providing a general definition for human error, mentioned that errors arise from human limitations because of the constraints placed on memory and processing of information. Apart from this, fatigue and stress are also factors that affect human limitations, which consequently have an impact on human error (Edkins Pfister, 2003). In addition, Wiener and Nagel (1988) argued that human error can also be caused by momentary lapses in skills, which is related to the inability of managers and system designers to focus on the human components of design. Kirwan (1994) examined an aviation accident, The Crash of the BEA Trident 1, and the corresponding reasons why it happened. The author narrated the events surrounding the accidents and pinpointed underlying causes. More specifically, the author mentioned the condition of the pilot, training of the crew, and mechanical failures as the primary reasons for the accident (Kirwan 1994).
Aviation disasters, in general, results from a variety of reasons, such as terrorism, pilot andor air traffic control error, weather, mechanical failure or a combination of these factors (Waugh, 2000). Antosia and Cahill recognized the possibility that aviation accidents may come from terrorism but a greater degree of possibility is attached to human error, weather, or mechanical failure. Haine (2000) further divided the aspect of human error into three specific categories. According to the author, the air accidents attributed to human failure are caused by lack of knowledge or skill, 25 percent improper attitude, 70 percent, and state of mind or body, 5 percent (Haine, 2000, p. 21). Similarly, Costa (2010) divided human factors contributing to airline accidents into three categories, which are sleep loss, desynchronosis, and chronic fatigue.
This GCP project seeks to establish the extent to which the human factor element affects air safety. In designing the methodology therefore, it is important that the participants chosen be those people and organizations that are familiar with aircraft safety.
Research design
There will be no primary data collection activities such as interviews and questionnaires, involved in the research. The research will be a secondary one with a focus on data available on the subject. This is justified by the fact that there is a lot of data available on the subject matter the challenge will be to find the appropriate statistics, and align the data analyses with the research objectives. The research design will be a non-experimental type.
Population
The research will draw its data from available research from National Transport and Safety Board (NTSB). The idea of getting data from reputable airline companies websites is also being explored. However, the use of the second type of data will only be possible if consistent data from at least 4 airlines can be found. Worth noting, is that the NTSB data is sufficient and any extra sources will provide the diversity needed to increase the depth of the research.
Procedure
NTSB, our main source of data, is a statutory body in charge of safety on transportation issues. Most of its reports are publicly available for use by any member of the public. The board does not require anyone to seek special permission to use its reports if the intended use falls within the realms of non profit making. Given that the research is not intended to generate any profits, the only compliance procedure needed in using the NTSB data will be giving full acknowledgement for the use of the reports.
Sample size and distribution
The criteria for selecting the reports will be as follows
The research will use 20 NTSB reports.
The year the report was made. The research will focus on reports that have been made within the last ten years. This is informed by the need to keep the sampling within controllable limits. Reports made in the last ten years are likely to be more easily accessible.
The investigative reports chosen will be those reports whose conclusions blame human error for the crash.
Plane model, airline involved, investigators and any other factors not related to, or mentioned in the research will not be considered in the sample selection.
Data analysis
Data analysis will be done using available quantitative data analytical methods as may be appropriate. The use of Statistical Package for the Social Sciences andor Microsoft Excel will be chosen so as to complement the descriptive presentation of findings as well test the validity and consistency of the results.
Limitations
The most glaring limitation of the research is the inability to conduct primary research. The potential participants for such a population would be pilots, co-pilots, air traffic controllers and aircraft safety experts. Accessing a representative population for these participants would be a challenge and take a lot of time and resources. For that reason, the research is unable to carry out a credible primary research approach.
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